The prologe of the translatour of this lytell treatyse in the seconde boke. Now whan we consyder / with mynde dylygentwith a careful mind The merueylous manersmarvellous manners, habits / & synguler condycion particular way of life Of the comyn people Bradshaw's use of the terms 'comyn people' here may imply a specific allusion to the medieval social theory of the 'three estates': church, nobility and 'commoners'. Bradshaw defines the commoners by their lack of access to literature and learning - and thus to good manners and refined behaviour. For a discussion of the 'three estates' in medieval social ideology and literature, see Mohl, 1962 and 'Medieval Estates and Orders: Making and Breaking Rules: An Overview', Norton Topics Online. / symple and neclygentnegligent, slovenly, Whiche without lytterature / and good informacyon Ben lyke to Brute beestes are like brute animals / as in comparyson, Rude / wylde / and boystousrough / by a prouerbeaccording to a proverb, certan, 'Good maners and conynge / maken a man'Good manners and knowledge make the man. Variants of the phrase 'manners make the man' occur in a range of Middle English texts, including the or . See Schleich, 1927, 222. Saynt Paule sayth / shewynge to the Romansdemonstrating to the Romans Romans 15:4 How all thynge wryten / in holy scrypture Is wryten for our doctrynefor our instruction / and ghostly ordynans spiritual guidance, Ultimately deriving from Paul's Letter to the Romans, the assertion that 'all is written for our doctrine' is a commonplace in later medieval English literature. See for example Chaucer's Retractions to or Caxton's Preface to Malory's See Benson, 1988, 328 and Vinaver, 1971, xv. For our great conforte / and endeles pleasure. All thynge is knowen playnly / by lytteraturethrough literature, Morall vertues / be noted by it full playne Moral virtues are very clearly represented by it From vycevice and neclygencenegligence / to abstayne, certayne. What were mankynde / without lytterature? What would mankind be without literature? Christopher Cannon has commented on the innovative use of the term 'lytterature' here, and the role of Bradshaw's discussion in establishing a new 'category of literature'. See Cannon, 2008, 150-1 and Cannon, 2002, 321 and 345-7. Full lytel worthyVery unworthy / blynded by ignoraunce. The way to heuen heaven it declareth ryght sure Thrugh perfyte lyuyngeperfect living / and good perseueraunceperseverance; By it we may be taught / for to do penaunce Whan we transgresse / our lordes commaundyment; It is a swete cordyallcordial, refreshment / for mannes ententaspiration. How shulde the seuen / scyences lyberallseven liberal arts The seven liberal arts were the combined disciplines of the Trivium (grammar, rhetoric, logic) and Quadrivium (geometry, arithmetic, music, astronomy) as taught in the medieval university, and formed the basis of medieval knowledge and learning. See Rait, 1912, or for a more detailed discussion Wagner, 1983. Haue ben preserued / vnto this day, The wysdome / of the phylosophers all, But alone by lernynge / it is no naythere is no doubt. The notable actes / of our fathers, I say, (yf litterature were nat)if literature did not exist myght nat nowe be tolde, Nor auncient histories and cronycleschronicles olde. The lawe of ciuile / and of holy canon Civil law and holy canon law Bradshaw makes a basic distinction between civil (secular) law and ecclesiastical or ecclesiastical-influenced (canon) law). For an introduction to different systems of law in the Middle Ages, see 'Illuminating the Law: Legal Manuscripts at the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge' . By study be preferredesteemed with moche honour To execute iusticejustice / and for due reformacionpunishment, correction; The most blessed doctrine of our sauiour, The actis of the apostolesActs of the Apostles / with the doctours four the four teachers (i.e. Gospels), Be preserued by wrytyng / and put in memorie, With the lyues of saintes many a noble storie. Of whiche historiesBradshaw locates his within the category of hagiography or saints' lives. we purpose speciall To speke of saint Werburge / vnder your protectionunder your patronage, In this line Bradshaw addresses the reader directly. See also below, line 57, line 64, and line 72. Declaryng the ende of her lyfe historiallher historical life (on earth) As we haue begon / and made playne menciontold explicitly In the fyrst volume by breue compliacionbrief compilation, composition, The term 'compilacion' draws attention to the nature of the text as an assimilation of earlier sources relating to the life of St Werburgh. See similarly 'compilacion' below, line 86, and 'abstract', line 65. There playnly descriuyngdescribing her liniall discensline of descent Of .iiii. myghty kyngdomesFrom four powerful kingdoms by true experience; See Goscelin, , Ch. 1. (Love, 2004, 30-1.) Also we haue shewed in the sayd littell boke Her goodly maners / and vertuous disposicion Of her yonge age / who-so lyst theron to lokewhoever wishes to look there (i.e. in Book I); And howe her brethernefamily suffred martyrdome;See for example Book I, lines 1982-2275 (Horstmann or via Literature Online - subscription only) and Goscelin, , Ch. 1, pp. 28-33. Of her fathers realme a litell discripcionA little description of her father's realm: Howe she was professed in the place of Ely; Following his sources, Bradshaw tells us that Werburgh entered the monastic life at Ely. See Book I, lines 1485-1547 (Horstmann, 1887 or via Literature Online - subscription only) and Goscelin, , Ch. 2 (Love, 2004, 34-7). Of her conuersacionmanner of living within the sayd monastery; After forbecause of her vertue / howe she was made abbasseabbess Of diuers monasteries,Werburgh was abbess at Weedon, Trentham, Hanbury, Minster in Sheppey and Ely. See Book I, lines 1982-2611 (Horstmann or via Literature Online - subscription only) flouryng in vertueflowering in virtue; And of the great miracles whiche there done was For her great charite / by the grace of Iesu; Howe diuers of her kynrede dyd clerely exchewemany of her family completely rejected All wordly pleasures and honours transetorytransitory, Professyng obedience at the place of Ely; Also we haue shewed vnder your licencewith your permission Of her departure from this lyfe mortall,See Book I, lines 3061-3174 (Horstmann, 1887 or via Literature Online - subscription only). And of her sepulture tomb at the place of Hamburgence Hanbury;See Book I, lines 3175-3244 (Horstmann, 1887 or via Literature Online - subscription only). The manyfoldemany myracles shewed by grace supernallheavenly, The wofull lamentacion of her systers all; And howe after .ix. yere of her translacionhow after nine years at the time of her translation Bradshaw gives an account of the translation of Werburgh's body (at Hanbury) in Book I, lines 3280-3455 (Horstmann, 1887 or via Literature Online - subscription only). By diuine ordinaunce miracles were done. We humblehumbly require you of your charitekindness To this seconde abstractabridgement to graunt pardon, Bradshaw's reference to his text as an 'abstract' or 'abridgement' emphasises its nature as an assimilation of earlier sources relating to St Werburgh and medieval history. Conysderynge we omytte whilom the historiewe leave for a while the history (of St Werburgh) And speke of cronicles / makyng a digression; It is of no ignoraunce / nor presumption, But to enlarge the mater and sentencecontent and worthy subject-matter, To gladde the auditoursdelight the listeners / and moue their diligenceencourage their attention. In our seconde boke expresse nowe wyll wewe will now tell, Vnder your licence and speciall tuicionWith your permission and special guidance, Of this blessed virgin / flourynge in chastiteflowering in chastity, Why and wherforefor what reason she came to Chestre towne, Principally by miracle / and diuine prouision, And how forbecause of synne / vice / and wykednes Danes Danes, Vikings oppressed this lande with wretchednes, And how she was receyued at Chestre citie; Of the fyrst foundacion of towne and the place; Of the great myracles there shewed openlie To chanons canons and monkes / by singular grace, Vnto euery creature in extreme casein the greatest need, Howe Werburge delyueredsaved the towne from enmiteenmity, From dredfull fire / and plagesplagues of miserye. Also encronicledchronicled foloweth here expresseclearly A brefe compilacioncompilation, account of kynge Edwarde seniour King Edward the Elder (ruled 899-924). See PASE and below, line 1108. Of kyng EthelstamKing Æthelstan (ruled c. 924-939). See PASE and below, lines 1109-1128. / the great worthynes, Of humble kyng Edgare regnyng as emperourreigning like an emperor, King Edgar (ruled Northumbria and Mercia from 959 and all of Anglo-Saxon England until 975). See PASE and below, lines 1133-1205. Of his comyng to Chestre / of his great honour; And howe Erle LeofriceLeofric, Earl of the Mercians (died 1057). See PASE and below, lines 1210-1240. repared of his chariterenovated through his devotion The mynstre of Werburge, gyuyng therto libertegiving freedom to it; Of the seconde foundacion of the sayd monastery From secular chanons to monkes religious Soone after the conquest, sayth the historye, By the erle of Chestre nominatcalled Hug. Lupus, Hugh d'Avranches, first Earl of Chester (died 1101). See DNB (subscription only) and below, lines 1262-1359. With counsell and helpeadvice and help of blessed Anselmus; Anselm, Abbot of Bec and Archbishop of Canterbury (c.1033-1109). See DNB (subscription only) and below, lines 1262-1359. And of the great compas enclosed area of the sayd abbay, Enuired with walles myghty to assayEncircled with walls, strong to attack (i.e. difficult to break); How Richard erle of Chestre by myracle ryght Richard Earl of Chester, son of Hugh d'Avranches (died in the White Ship disaster, 1120). See the end of the entry on Hugh d'Avranches, DNB (subscription only). Was preserued from daunger of Walshemen Welshmen, And howe he was drowned about mydnyght PurposyngIntending to distroye the monastery, certentruly. Book II, lines 1416-1485 (Horstmann, 1887 or via Literature Online - subscription only). Celestiall signes were shewed to men and women, To chidren and innocentes by singular grace Of blessed Werburge, patronesse of the place: These miracles specified / and many other momore This virgin shewed within Chestre cite, Whiche at this tyme we let ouer goat this time we pass over, Lest to the reders tedious it shulde beIn case it should be tedious for the readers. Almyghty god, both one two and thre, Sende vs of theyr grace to make a good ende: Helpe, lady Werburge, this warke to amendeto improve this work. The pleas to the Holy Trinity and Werburgh to help 'make a good ende' and 'this warke to amende' are multivalent, sugesting both the 'end' of the textual 'work' which Bradshaw is producing, as well as the 'end' of the 'work' of a good Christian life. Bradshaw's concern with 'making a good end' perhaps gains further significance as we know that he died, perhaps still as a relatively young man, shortly after completing the . See Horstmann, 1887, vi-vii.

Howe the people of Hambury brought the shryne to Chestre / and of the solemne receuyung of it by all the inhabitauntes of Chesshyre. In meane tyme the danes pitouslypiteously, lamentably destroyed The monasteries of Werburge / Trentam & Wedon, As they many other places had euyll oppressed In the north and eest part of this region; The kyngdome of Kent suffred lyke punicionsimilar punishment, The Ile of WyghtIsle of Wight endured moche turmentgreat torment: So dyd the Westmarches West Marches (i.e. the Welsh Marches, borders) / for punysshement. The idea of the Danish raids as a 'punishment' or divine retribution enacted on the people of Britain dates back to contemporary texts from the Anglo-Saxon period. See for example Alcuin, in Godman, 1985, 127-39 and Wulfstan of York, , Whitelock, 1963 or Melissa Bernstein Ser, ed., The Electronic Sermo Lupi ad Anglos. The people of Hambury, wysely consyderyng The comynge of danes vnto Repton, And of the departure of Burdred, theyr kyng, Burgred, King of the Mercians (ruled 852-874). See PASE. Howe all Englande was in great affliction, And howe they were next to endure punicionpunishment - Whiche forsayd Repton was distaunt from Hambury The space of .v. mile5 miles, sayth the history - Bradshaw's account of the translation of Werburgh is an expanded version of that in Higden's , Book V, Ch. XVIII. See Babington and Lumby, 1865-86, vol. 5, 126-8. The Hamburgenses The citizens of Hanbury with all the comons and clergy, Dredynge full sorevery much the pagans flagellacionsscourgings, Through the metaphor of 'flagellacion', associated with the extreme penitential practice of scourging, Bradshaw further reinforces the idea of the Danish invasions as a penance imposed by God. Of their lyues desperate despairing for their lives / but for the shryne specially, To our blessed sauiour made dayly inuocacionsinvocations With vigils, prayers and feruent meditacions, To preserue the countrey / the relique / the shryne From daunger of enmiteenmity and miserable ruyneruin. As they continued in cotidiandaily prayer, The best remedie sekyng for to fynde To auoide vexacion and all greuousgrievous daunger Of theyr great ennemies cursed and vnkyndeunnatural, foreign, The holy goostGhost, Spirit inspired theyr mynde To take the shryne with great humilite And brynge it to Chestre from perill and enmyte. They toke this riallroyal, noble relique of reuerence With great mekenes, deuocion and feruour, Through the grace of god, theyr helpe and defence, Came to-warde Chester with diligence and honour - A place preordinatpre-ordained by our sauiour Where he body shulde rest and worshipped be, Magnified with miracles next our ladienext to Our Lady. Whan the clergie of Chestre and the citezens Bradshaw uses the term 'citizen' in its conventional medieval sense to apply to those residents of the city who had particular rights and privileges. See E.L. Skip Kox, Medieval Society: Towns Herde tell of the comynge of this noble abbasseabbess, They made preparacion and great diligence, In theyr best-manerbest sort of worship and solacejoy To mete this relique of singularspecial grace; The great estates / and rulers of the countray Were redy to honour saint Werburge that day. First was ordeynedarranged a solemne procession, With crosses / and baners / and surges clere lyghtcandles brightly lit, The belles were tolled for ioyejoy and deuocion; The ministres of god in coopes redy dightin copes (liturgical vestments) all ready and prepared, With censourscensors of siluer / to encensecense, perfume her body rightproperly, fittingly; All prestis priests and clerkes redy to say and synge Proceded in ordreProcessed in order / this holy virgin praysyng. Bradshaw's stylised description of the procession through the streets of Chester allows him to set out an idealised version of medieval society, adapting the theory of the 'three estates' to depict the well-ordered hierarchy of Chester and its inhabitants. The clergy (the first estate) are followed by the secular nobility (the second estate). After the nobility of the shire come the citizens of Chester - those particular inhabitants of the city who have the full rights and privileges of citizenship. Following the citizens we have the higher-ranking women of Chester, including virgins, widows and wives - the three conditions of woman or 'female estates'. Finally, the commoners (the third estate) end the procession. Bradshaw's vision of the ranks and orders of society represents his own late-medieval experience and ideology, rather than the realities of ninth-century Anglo-Saxon social organisation. For further discussion of the 'three estates' in medieval society and literature see Mohl, 1962 and Medieval Estates and Orders: Making and Breaking Rules: An Overview (Norton Topics Online). Next to the clergie approched in degreecame close in rank The lordes of the shyreshire, knyghtes, barons, all With feruent deuocion / praysyng the trinite Whiche sent to them suche comfort spirituall. The citezens ensuedfollowed with gladness cordiallheartfelt, With bokes and beadesprayers / magnifiengpraising our maker For this great treasure to kepe them from daunger. Venerable virgins next sette in ordre clereillustrious order, With lilies in theyr handesThe lily is a conventional symbol of virginity and chastity in medieval literature. / coronatecrowned with chastite, Good widowes and wuyes appoynted well werewives were well arranged, Gyuynge true thankes vnto this virgin frenoble. Nex[t] them assemble all the commonte commoners In all goodly maner, dyuised by discrecionarrayed by good judgement, Praysyng saynt Werburge with humiliacionhumility. Whan they approched to her hieexalted presence And comon were aforewere come before this relique most riall, They kneled all downe with myclemuch reuerence, Salutyngesaluting, showing respect towards the shryne with honour victoriallof victory, 'Victoriall' appears in several late Middle English texts in specific collocations which refer to the (actual or metaphorical) pilgrim's badge or symbol of victory. See for example 'crownys victoriall' in , Eccles, 1969, 150. Bradshaw's choice of language this subtly casts the Chester procession as proto-pilgrims approaching Werburgh's shrine. The particular incidence of 'victoricall' in medieval English dramatic texts might also suggest its association with a performative, ritual context, such as that depicted by Bradshaw here. MagnifyingPraising with melodye and tunystunes musicall This glorious virgin / nothyng done amisnothing done wrong, Syngynge Te deumSinging 'Te Deum' (a Latin hymn of praise) to the kyng of blysse. The lordes / the citezins / and all the commons Here again Bradshaw distinguishes three groups amongst urban secular society: the nobility, fully enfranchised citizens, and the commoners - either inhabitants of the city or those living outside who did not enjoy the full status and rights of a citizen. MekelyMeekly submytted them-selfethemselves to the shryne, With manyfolde prayses and humble supplicacions, With interiourinner loue / and morall discipline, Trustyng all in her to saue them from ruyne, From greuous daunger / and cruell enmite By her entercessionintercession vnto the trinite. They gaue due thankes vnto this abbasse, Deuoutly sayenge knelyng vpon kne: 'Welcome, swete lady, replet with gracefull of grace, The floure of mekenes flower of meekness / and of chastitechastity, The cristall of clennes crystall of cleanness, chastity and virginite; The words of the prayer to Werburgh echo those of the Marian prayer ('Hail Mary'), in which the Virgin is addressed as 'gratia plena' ('full of grace'). The other metaphors used here for Werburgh ('floure of mekenes', 'cristall of clennes', also 'rose' in line 317 and 'diamonde' or 'gemme' in line 318 also recall the conventional imagery of medieval Marian hymns. Welcome thou art to vs euerychoneeach and every one, A speciall comfort for vs to trust vpon! 'Welcome, swete princesse / kynges doughter king's daughter dere, Welcome, faire creature / and rose of merciens rose of the Mercians, The diamonde of dignite / and gemme shenynge clere jewel shining clear, Virgin and moiniall nun of myclegreat excellence; Welcome, holy abbasse of hie preeminenceexalted pre-eminence, The rutilant saphire glistening (with a gold or red hue) sapphire of synceritesincerity, The sapphire is a common epithet for the Virgin Mary in medieval literature. Bradshaw seems specifically to suggest a yellow sapphire here, which was associated with powers of healing and protection in medieval gemology. See for example Evans and Serjeantson, 1933, 100-123 and 120 or in Sharon Coolidge, Medieval Literature Annotated Bibliography. Welcome, swete patronesse, to Chestre cite! Thou art our refuge / and singular succourspecial aid, Our sure tuicionguidance, next tosecond to the trinite, Oure speciall defence at euery houre To releuerelieve thy seruauntesservants in all necessite; Thou art our solacecomfort and helpe in eche degrein every way, Oure ioyejoy / trust / and comfort / and goostlyspiritual treasure: Welcome to this towne, for euer to endure!' Agaynst her comyngeTo greet her arrival into Chestre cite The stretes streets were strawedstrewn with floursflowers fragrant, The mancions and halles edified rialleroyally built Were hanged with arrastapestries precious and plesaunt, Torches were carried on eche syde flagrantburning; Also ouer the shryne was prepared a canabycanopy Of cloth of golde and tissewefabric riche and costly. The pageantry accompanying the arrival of Werburgh's relics into Chester suggests the pomp and ceremonial of the medieval 'civic triumph' or 'royal entry', in which a monarch was welcomed into an - obedient and celebrating - city. For discussion of the practice, see Kipling, 1998, and for a late-medieval literary account, see Richard Maidstone's (Carlson, 2003 or the TEAMS online edition). Thus with great worship, decouredecorum and dignite Of all clergie, lordis and citezens She was receuyed with great humilite Into the cite with humble reuerence, The clergie syngyngsinging with mycle diligencegreat care, The comons commoners prayeng with loue feruent, Folowynge this relique after their ententaccording to their desire. In procession they passed all in to the towne, With ioyejoy and great gladnes, ye may be sure, In ordre togyther, in charite and deuociondevotion, PraysyngPraising our sauiour and this virgin pure; They brought full solemplesolemnly with gostlyspiritual p[l]easure This riallroyal, noble relique to the moost noble place Within all the cite, as our lordes wyll was. This seconde translaciontranslation of this virgin bright Werburgh's body had already been translated once at Hanbury, nine years after her death. See Book I, lines 3280-3455 (Horstmann, 1887 or via Literature Online - subscription only). From Hambury abbay vnto Chestre cite Was celebratecelebrated, with ioye and gladnes full rightvery proper, The yere of our saueour in his humanite In the year after Our Lord's incarnation viii. hundreth complet .v. and seuentie875 (i.e. 875 C.E.); Alured regned thanAlfred reigned then kyng of this region, Victorious and liberallnoble / coronatecrowned at London. King Alfred 'the Great' (ruled 871-899). See PASE. This kyng deuyded in .iiii. partes his richessedivided his wealth into four parts: One parte to the poore, the seconde to religion, The thyrde part to scholersscholars / the fourth to bild churches; See Asser's , Ch. 102 in Smyth, 2002, 50-1 or via the Online Medieval and Classical Library. And of a day naturallcustomary / he made triumthree-part diuision: viii. houres to rede and praye with feruent deuocion, viii. houres occupied with businesse naturallnatural, bodily, And other .viii. houres to rule his realme riall. Nobilitas innata tibi probitatis honorem, Armipotens Alurede, dedit / probitasque laborem, Perpetuumque labor nomen: cui mixta dolori Gaudia semper erant: spes semper mixta timori. Si modo victus erat / ad crastina bella parabat, Iam post transactos regni viteque labores / Christe ei sit vera quies / sceptrumque perenne.These lines are taken from a longer panegyric to Alfred in Henry of Huntingdon’s . The text given by Diana Greenway is largely identical, except for a few differences in orthography and punctuation, although Bradshaw’s version reverses the order of the fifth and sixth lines and changes them from a direct second-person address to the third person. There are also some errors in Bradshaw’s transcription. Greenway’s translation of the Henry of Huntingdon lines used by Bradshaw runs thus: 'Inborn nobility gave you, valiant Alfred, the dignity of prowess, and prowess gave you toil, and toil gave you an everlasting name. For you rejoicing was always accompanied by grief, hope always mixed with fear. If today you were among the victors, you trembled for tomorrow’s battles; if today you were defeated, you made ready for the battles of tomorrow. Now after the labours he performed in his life and reign, may Christ be his true rest and an everlasting sceptre'. See Greenway 1996, 298, 299.

A litel descripcion of the foundacion of Chestre / and of the abbay-churche within the sayd cite / where ye holy shryne by grace remayneth. Two citescities of legions in cronicles we fynde: The description of the city of Chester and account of its origins in the subsequent stanzas follows Higden's , Book I, Ch. XLVIII (Babington and Lumby, 1865-86, vol. 2, 74-6). One in south-Wales / in the tyme of Claudius The Roman Emperor Claudius I (ruled 41 C.E. - 54 C.E.), whose reign saw the conquest of Britain. Called Caeruska / by britons had in mynde,Caeruska means 'the city on the river Usk'. OrelsOr alternatively Caerleon / buyldedbuilt by kyng Belinus; Caerleon means 'the city of Legions'. Belinus is a legendary king of the Britons. See Geoffrey of Monmouth, , Part III (Thorpe, 1966, 90-100). 'He restored existing cities wherever they had fallen into decay and he founded many new ones. Among the others which he founded was a certain city on the bank of the River Usk, near to the Severn Sea: this was the capital of Demetia [south Wales] and for a long time it was called Kaerusc. When the Romans came the earlier name was dropped and it was re-named the City of the Legions, taking its title from the Roman Legions who used to winter there' (99). Where somtymeat one time was a legion of knyghtes chiualrous. Bradshaw imagines the Roman legionaries in the style of the chivalrous knights of medieval romance. See also below, line 377. This cite of legions was whilomat one time the bysshops sesee (regional seat) of the bishops Vnto all south-wales / nominatcalled Wenedocie Wenedocia. Line 371 seems to reflect an error in reading Higden. Higden's describes Caerleon or Caerusk as an important city in south Wales. However, it is Chester 'quae tempore Britonum caput fuit et metropolis Venedotiae, id est, Norwalliae' ('which in the time of the Britons was the chief city of Wenedocia, that is, North Wales'). Wenedocia is in fact North Wales, and in addition Bradshaw seems to have confused the two 'cities of legions'. See the , Book I, Ch. XLVIII (Babington and Lumby, 1865-86, vol. 2, 78). Another cite of legions we may fynde also In the west part of Englande / by the water of Dee, Called Caerlleon ofby britons longe ago, AfterAfterwards named Chestre, by great auctorite; Iulius the emperour sende to this sayd cite The Roman Emperor Julius Caesar (ruled 49 B.C.E. - 44 B.C.E.), who led the first Roman invasion of Britain in 55 B.C.E. A legion of knyghtes / for to subdue Irelande; Higden, , Book I, Ch. XLVIII (Babington and Lumby, 1865-86, vol. 2, 78). Like-wyse dyd Claudius (as we vnderstande). In these stanzas, Bradshaw unpicks the different names applied to places within Britain to reveal a narrative of invasion, conquest and cultural change. Yet Bradshaw constructs these different names as historical layers, replaced in chronological progression, eliding the reality that alternative names exist for sites, including Chester, within his own period (e.g. English - Chester, Welsh - Caer). These stanzas implicitly relegate cultural difference to history, obscuring the multiple cultural communities and multiple names still operating along the Welsh Marches in Bradshaw's present. The founder of Chestre / as sayth Policronicon, Was Lleon Gauer / a myghty stronge gyaunt, Higden does not in fact name Chester's founder, saying that Chester is a city 'cujus fundator ignoratur' ('whose founder is unknown'), but adding that the city appears to many observers to be 'giganteo labore' ('the work of giants'). See Higden, , Book I, Ch. XLVIII (Babington and Lumby, 1865-86, vol. 2, 78). The name Lleon Gauer appears to be an extrapolation from Caerleon, combined with an approximation of the Welsh for giant (gawr). Whiche buylded caues and dongions many oneWho built many caves and dungeons, No goodly buyldyng / propre ne pleasaunt(neither)attractive nor pleasant; But the Kynge Leil, a briton suretrue and valiaunt, Leil or Leir, mythical king of the Britons. See Geoffrey of Monmouth, , Part II (Thorpe, 1966, 79-80). Was founder of Chestre by pleasaunt buyldyng, And of Caerleil also named by the kynge. Carlisle in north-west England. See Geoffrey of Monmouth, , Part II (Thorpe, 1966, 80). 'Leil took advantage of the prosperity f his reign to build a town in the northern part of Britain which he called Kaerleil after himself.' Whilst Higden also refers to Leil as the founder of Carlisle, he does not make the connection with Chester. See Higden, , Book I, Ch. XLVIII (Babington and Lumby, 1865-86, vol. 2, 68). Ranulphus in his cronicle yet doth expressesay The cite of Chestre edified for to be to have been built By the noble romans prudenceforesight, wisdom and richessewealth Whan a legion of knyghtes was sendesent to the cite, Rather than by the wysdome of the Britons or policie the good judgement or design of the Britons; Obiectyng clereClearly objecting agaynst the britons fundacion, Whiche auctour resteth in his owne opinionThe said author settles on his own opinion. Higden is in fact somewhat ambiguous on the foundation of Chester. Having stated that the founder of Chester is unknown, Higden remarks that the city would seem to the observer to be 'Romano seu giganteo labore, quam Britannico sudore fundata' ('founded on the work of giants or Romans, rather than the effort of Britons' (Book I, Ch. XLVIII. See Babington and Lumby, 1865-86, vol. 2, 78). Bradshaw (seemingly wilfully) mis-reads Higden at this point, in order to emphasise his own claims for the British origins of the city. Kyng Marius, a bryton, regnyngreigining in prosperiteprosperity See Geoffrey of Monmouth, , Part IV (Thorpe, 1966, 123-4). In the West partiepart of this noble region, AmpliatEnlarged and walled strongly Chestre cite And myghtylymightily fortified the sayd foundacion. Thus eche auctoureach author, authority holdeth a singulardistinct opinion.Here Bradshaw notes the existence of different, competing foundation myths for Chester. This Marius slewe Reodric, kyng of pictis lande, Callyng the place ofthrough his name Westmarilande. 'Reodric' corresponds with 'Sodric' in Geoffrey of Monmouth's account. See Geoffrey of Monmouth, , Part IV (Thorpe, 1966, 123): 'A little later on in his reign a certain King of the Picts called Sodric came from Scythia with a large fleet and landed in the northern part of Britain which is called Albany. He began to ravage Marius' lands. Marius thereupon collected his men together and marched to meet Sodric. He fought a number of battles against him and finally killed him and won a great victory. In token of his triumph Marius set up a stone in the district, which was afterwards called Westmorland after him'. Higden gives the name as 'Rodricus'. See Higden, , Book IV, Ch. IX (Babington and Lumby, 1865-86, vol. 4, 416-19) This 'cite of legions', so called by the Romans, 'City of legions' translates the Welsh Caerleon. Nowe is nominat in latine of his propretecalled in Latin, because of its distinctive qualities, Cestria quasi castria Chester, as it were a castle (Latin) / of honour and pleasance: The phrase 'Cestria quasi Castria' corresponds with the first line of Higden's poem in praise of Chester, 'Cestria de castro nomen quasi Castria sumpsit' ('Chester, like a fortress, assumes the name of a castle'). The subsequent references to the buildings of Chester in this stanza also derive from Hidgen's poem. See Higden , Book I, Ch. XLVIII (Babington and Lumby, 1865-86, vol. 2, 80-2). Proued by the buyldynge of olde antiquite In cellers and lowe voultes vaults / and halles of realte royal halls Lyke a comly castellbeautiful castle / mighty, stronge and sure, EcheEach house like a touretower, somtymeat one time of great pleasure. Vnto the sayd Chestre all northwales subiect werewas subject For reformacioncorrection, punishment, Iustice and iugementjudgement; Theyr bysshops seesee (regional seat) also it was many a yere for many years Enduryng the gouernance of brutes auncientContinuing the [English] government of the ancient Britons; To saxons and britons a place indifferentA place which was impartial towards Saxons and Britons; The inhabitauntes of it manfullmanly and liberallnoble, generous, Constant, sadserious and virtuous / and gentyll continuallalways noble. Of frutes and cornes there is great habundaunceabundance, Woddes Woods / parkes / forestes / and beestis of venareanimals for hunting, Pastures / feeldes fields / commons common land / the cite to auaunceto enhance the city, Waters / pooles / pondes of fysshefish great plente; Most swete holsome ayresweet wholesome air by the water of dee: There is great marchaundise merchandise, trade / shyps ships and wynes strangstrong wines, With all thing of pleasure the citezens amonge. The yere of our lorde a hundred sixe and fyfty156 C.E. Reigned vpon this lande a briton kyng Lucius, WhicheWho with great desire required instantlyurgently His realme to be baptized ofby pope Eleutherius. Whose charitable mocion was harde full gratiusWhose devout proposal was heard very graciously: The pope enioyedmade joyful / graunted his peticionpetition And sende .ii. doctourssent two teachers to conuerteconvert this region. See Geoffrey of Monmouth, , Part IV (Thorpe, 1966, 124-6): '[Lucius's] great wish was that he should end in even greater esteem than he had begun, and he therefore sent a letter to Pope Eleutherius to ask that he might be received by him into the Christian faith... What he asked for in his pious petition was granted to him: for the Holy Father, when he heard of the devotion of Lucius, sent him two learned and religious men, Faganus and Duvianus, who preached the Incarnation of the Word of God and so converted Lucius to Christ and washed him clean in holy baptism'. See also Bede, , Book I, Ch. 4 (Colgrave and Mynors, 1969, 24, 25). The doctours by prechyngpreaching and singularspecial grace In short tyme conuerted the greatter Britayne; 'Greater Britain' as opposed to Bretagne, the region in the north-west of present-day France. The people confessed their synne and trespasetransgression, Batpized all were / forgyuenesforgiveness dyd attayneattain; IdolatrieIdolatry cessed through-out this lande, certayne; With grace circumfulcedstrengthened and lyghtnedilluminated was Englande, By faith to god professed was all Wales and scotlande. Kynge Lucius ordeynedarranged / by the doctours mocionat the teachers' suggestion xxxviii.twenty-eight bisshops in this realme for to be, And .iii.three archebisshops, for gostly exhortacionspiritual encouragement, To reduce the peoplebring the people back to vertue and humilite. At London was set the chiefe archebisshops sesee, bishop's seat, The seconde in south-Wales at cite of legions, That is, Caerleon in south Wales. The thyrde was at yorke, all subiect to the britons. Churches were edifiedbuilt in many a place Here in the more Britayne greater Britain with diligent labour, Christis Christ's faith encreased by speciall grace, Faithfull religion delatedgrew euery hour; Diuine seruice was songonsung & sayd with great honour, True faith and deuocion wre dayly encreasynge, Namely in Chestre by grace continuall abidynge. Certaynly, sith baptymsince baptism came to Chestre cite, Soone after Lucius / and aforebefore kynge Arthure, By the grace of god and their humilitehumility, The faith of holy churche dyd euer there endure Without rediciuacionrelapse (into error, sin) and infection / suresecure; Wherefore it is worthy a singular commendacionworthy of a special commendation, Aboue all the citees and townes of this region. The perfect begynnyng and fyrst foundacion Of the monasterie within the sayd cite Was at the same tyme by famuswell-known opinion That baptymbaptism began within this countrecountry; The great lordes of Chestre of landes and auncetrelineage First edified the churche for comfortencouragement spirituall In honour of the apostels apostles Peter and Paule. Whiche churche was principallchief to all the citie, And the mouther-churche called withouten doubt; It was their buriall burial-place by great auctoriteby great authority, official sanction, To all this sayd cite / and .vii.seven myle without; The cemiterie was large to compase it aboutenclose it all around. But whatExcept that by sufferauncehardship and processepassing of tyme Many olde customes ben brought now to ruynehave now been brought to ruin. In whiche mother-churche of Peter and Paule All holy sacramentes ministred dayly werewere administered daily, With great encreasementincrease of vertuesvirtues all, Continuall enduryngeLasting without interruption more than .CCC.300 yere, In the britons tyme / of blodde noble and clereIn the time of the Britons, of noble and pure blood, AforeBefore the comyng of saxons to this lande, Which with apostasieapostasy, lapse in faith enfectedinfected all Englande. So after that the Angles / Iutes Jutes / and saxons Bradshaw's reference to the three Germanic tribes of the Angles, Saxons and Jutes is a commonplace of medieval English historiography, following Bede's narrative in the , Book I, Ch. 15. See Colgrave and Mynors, 1969, 48-53. By fortune of batellbattle, war / power and policiedesign Had clerelycompletely subdued all the olde britons And them expulsedexpelled, exiled to wales and wylde countrewild country, The faith of holy churche remayned at chestre cite In the sayd churche, truely, by singularspecial grace alone, Like as the faith of Peter neuer fayled at RomeJust as the faith of Peter never failed at Rome. What tymeAt the time that saint Austin, the doctourteacher of Englande, Saint Augustine, sent by Pope Gregory to convert the Germanic tribes living within Britain. See Bede , Book I, Ch. 23 (Colgrave and Mynors, 1969, 68-71) and PASE. Had baptized Ethelbrut, kynge of Kent, King Æthelberht of Kent (ruled c.580-616). See Bede, , Book I, Ch. 25-6 (Colgrave and Mynors, 1969, 72-79) and PASE. And by relacionreport dyd fully vnderstande That the faith of Christ most dignenoble and excellent In the cite of legions was truely remanentcontinuing, In the churche of the apostoles Peter and Paul, He magnifiedpraised our lorde with thanke speciallspecial gratitude. That seasonAt that time there was a noble monasterie xii.12 myles from Chestre, nominatecalled Bangour, Where religious monkes lyued vertuouslyelived virtuously, Almost .iii. thousandethree thousand / obedient euery houre, Without possessions / lyuyngliving by theyr labour: Vnto whiche place he sende for helpe at nede, To conuert the saxons (sayth venerable Bede). See Bede, , Book II, Ch. 2 (Colgrave and Mynors, 1969, 136-143). Saynt Austin approched the cite of legions, Where the sayd couent afore hym were present:That is, Augustine approaches Chester where the monks of Bangor await him. Whom he required to prechepreach to the saxons The faith of holy churche and baptymbaptism diligent. To whose humble prayer / they were disobedient, ObseruyngPractising no charitedevotion / yet for theyr great pride Many of them were slayne by kyng Ethelfride. Æthelfrith of Northumbria (died 616). Ruled the kingdom of Bernicia from c.593 and the kingdom of Deira from c.604, making him the first king of the area later known as Northumbria. See Bede, , Book I, Ch. 34 (Colgrave and Mynors, 1969, 116-7) and Book II, Ch. 2 (Colgrave and Mynors, 1969, 134-143). Higden also refers to the massacre of the Bangor monks at Chester, giving the number of those killed as 2,200. See Higden, ,Book V, Ch. X (Babington and Lumby, 1865-86, vol. 5, 420). That season the britons remayned vnder licencewith permission, under special privilege Of Angles and saxons within the sayd cite, TyllUntil the dayes of Offa, kynge of merciens, Offa, King of the Mercians (ruled 757-796). See PASE or 'English Kingdoms of the 8th Century' in the Online Reference Book for Medieval Studies. RegnyngReigning in the west marche West March, Welsh Marches with great victorie; Whiche kynge expulsedexpelled by power and chiualrie All brutes Britons and walshemen Welsh people clerecompletely out of his londe, In peynepain of punysshement none there to be fondefound. Whan the said churche, hauynge great liberte, Dayly augmentedgrew in vertue and holynessholiness, Prestis and clerkes praysed the holy trinite And the sayd apostoles with great mekeneshumility, The cite encreased in worshyp and ryches; Churches were edified with feruent deuociondevotion In sondrievarious places within the sayd towne. This noble kyng Offa agaynst the pagans Of .xvii.seventeen batels had euer the victoryealways had the victory; Confederate wasWas allied with great Charles, kyng of Fraunce, Charlemagne, King of the Franks (ruled 768-814). See Story, 2005, 195-210. And edified saint Albans monasterye; Of Englande first toke the hole monarchieFirst became monarch of the whole of England Gaue Peter pens vnto the court of Rome; 'Peter's pence' or romescot / romefeoh in Old English refers to the tax raised in England and sent to Rome in support of the Holy See. This practice was reportedly begun by King Offa in the eighth century. See Jensen, 1901, available via JSTOR (subscription only). Translate to Lichefelde the se of CanturburyTransferred the see of Canterbury to Lichfield; xxxix. yere39 years regned fully in this region.

A brefe rehersall of the first foundacion of the mynstre of Chestre / and of the institucion of secular chanons in the tyme of kyng Edwarde senior. The yere of grace .D.CCC. seuynte and fyue875 C.E., Kyng Alured regned vpon this region, King Alfred (ruled 871-899). See PASE. The reliquerelic, the shryne full memoratyuememorable Was brought to Chestre for our consolacion, Reuerently receyuedReverently received, set with deuocion In the mouther-churche of saint Peter and Paule, (As afore is sayd), a place moost principall. In whiche holy place vnto this present day She bodilye restethrests in body by diuine prouidence, And so by his grace shall continue alway, In honour, worshyp / and myclegreat reuerence; A deuoutdevout oratorieoratory, place for praying of vertue and excellence, Prepared by our lorde / where speciall remedy Is agayne all greuans in soule and in bodyagainst all sickness of soul or body. The primatyue gyftesfirst gifts gyuen to the place Immediatly were after her comynge Were immediately after her coming OfFrom deuout people replet with gracefull of grace In the dayes of the forsayd Alured kyng: Of landes and liberteslegal privileges they made moche offeryngeHere libertes implies the lands held within particular privileges and jurisdictions. To god and saint Werburge / after theyr possessionaccording to what they owned, TristyngTrusting to her prayer and sure protection. The people with deuocion and mynde feruentzealous mind Gaue diuers enormentesvarious ornaments vnto this place: Some gaue a coopecope / and some a vestement, Some other a chalice / and some a corporacecorporas, Many albesalbs and other clothes offred ther waswere offered there, Some crosses of golde / some bokes / some belles; The pore folke gaue surgescandles / torches / and towelles. This stanza includes a number of technical terms relating to equipment and clothing used within the medieval church. The cope is a form of cloak worn by the priest during the liturgy, the alb is a long white linen tunic, whilst 'vestement' refers to the priest's ceremonial garments in general. The chalice is the cup used to administer wine at mass, and the corporas is the cloth used to cover the consecrated sacrament (bread). Other tools of the liturgy mentioned here include crosses, books and bells, whilst the gifts of less wealthy donors to the church include candles, torches and simple cloths used either for cleaning or possibly to cover altars and tombs. The citezens offered to the sayd virgine For the great miracles amonge them wrought Many riallroyal, noble gyftes of Iewelsjewels to the shrine, Thankynge our lorde, that hath vs all boughtwho has redeemed us all, And blessed Werburge in worde, dededeed, and thought - The phrase 'worde, dede, and thought' recalls the formula 'cogitatione, verbo, et opere' ('in thought, word and deed') used, for example, in the Confiteor or prayers of confession in the medieval liturgy. See The Medieval Sourcebook: Mass of the Roman Rite Latin / English. Women and children she mynded full graciousshe remembered very mercifully, As testifiethstipulates, prescribes the archebisshop Antoninus. This line presents some difficulties. The Middle English Dictionary does admit 'to stipulate' as a possible (though apparently infrequent) meaning for the verb testifien. '[A]rchebisshop Antoninus' probably refers to Antoninus, Archbishop of Florence (1389-1459). Antoninus was an influential figure in late-medieval Europe, whose theological writings emphasise the duty of individuals and the state to offer protection and assistance to the needy or vulnerable in society. His thought has been described as centring on a 'civic theology' based on 'the interconnectedness of the heavenly and earthly cities'. See Howard, 1995, esp. 199, 201 and Finn, 2007, available via Wiley Interscience (subscription only). Antoninus's works circulated widely, particularly in the universities, and Bradshaw may have encountered this material during his time at Oxford, if he was indeed a student at Gloucester College as Anthony Wood suggests. There is also a reference to Antoninus lines 505-6 of the , usually attributed to Bradshaw, where he is described as 'myn auctor... [t]he venerable Antoninus' (see Literature Online - subscription only). In this instance, Bradshaw probably drew on Antoninus's , a collection of saints' lives derived from other sources, which includes a brief account of St Radegund. See Petrus Maturus, 1586, vol. 2, 292-4. Diuine seruice was obserued deuoutly Euery day, encreasyngincreasing with feruent adoracionadoration As the feestreligious festival, occasion required / and the solemnitesolemnity, To the honour of our lorde and hiehigh, exalted glorificacion; Preistis and clerkes with pure meditacionprayer Obseruynge their dutie gaue vertuous examplepresented a virtuous example Of great perfection to the comon people. After kyng Alured / regned his son Edwarde senior, by liniall discencethe descent of lineage, Edward the Elder (ruled 899-924). See PASE. Crowned the yere of grace .ix. hundreth and one901 C.E., [W]ith wordlyworldly glorie and great preeminence; Buylded castles, townes of myghty defence, Subdued the danes .vii.seven tymes in batell; EncreasedEnlarged his realme manfully and well. That tymeAt that time the realme of merciens kingdom of the Mercians was translatetransferred By the kynge / and gyuen to duke Ethelrede, Æthelræd of Mercia (ruled c. 833-911). Whilst ruling Mercia as 'earl' or 'ealdormann', Æthelræd was subject to the authority of King Alfred of Wessex, as Bradshaw explains here. A noble man of auncetrenoble ancestry / politickeprudent and fortunateprosperous, beneficent, WhicheWho maried his systerkinswoman, female relative, lady Elflede, See PASE. As Bradshaw notes in the following line, Æthelflæd was the eldest daughter of King Alfred, so a distant female relative of Æthlraed. Doughter to the forsaid valiant kynge Alurede; The sayd gentilmannobleman was wyse and vertuous, SadSolemn and discretewise, pacient and famousrenowned. This lady Elflede, duchesse of merciens, This appellation echoes the title 'Lady of the Mercians', given to Æthelflæd in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (DEF versions) and in later texts. See for example the entry for 918 'Her Æthelflæd forðferde Myrcena hlæfdige' ('In this year Æthelflæd, Lady of the Mercians, died') (Irvine, 2004). Had speciall loue and singularparticular affection To blessed Werburge, and true confidencefaith, trust: Wherfore she myndedFor which reason she decided with great dilectacionjoy To edifiebuild a mynstre, a place of deuocion, To this holy virgin, for profitebenefit of her soule, Enlargynge the churche of Peter and of Paule. Bradshaw is the only extant source for this late tradition that Æthelflæd enlarged the church of St Peter and Paul and re-dedicated it to Werburgh, founding a new church of St Peter in the centre of the city. See below, lines 625-31 and A.T. Thacker, , Lewis and Thacker, 2005, 133-155, 153, also available via British History Online. She mouedprevailed upon, persuaded her husbande with great mekenesmeekness To supplieaccomplish the same dede ofthrough his charite, Bradshaw appears to allude to the popular medieval tradition that Æthelflæd was the true power behind her husband's rule. And diuers other nobles of theyr goodnes For aide in that cause after their degreeaccording to their status. IoyfullJoyful was the duke of the mocion gostleat the spiritual proposal, Glad were the nobles within all the shire To founde a mynstre after her desire. AforeBefore the holy roodecross in a table writen is At saint Iohans churche withoutoutside the sayd cite, Though there is no specific evidence for the inscription Bradshaw mentions, Alan Thacker notes that fragments of tenth-century memorial stones were recovered from St John's churchyard in the late nineteenth century. See A.T. Thacker, , Lewis and Thacker, 2005, 125-133, 125, also available via British History Online. Howe that prince Edmunde, the thyrdethird son e-wisindeed Of Edward senior, true foundour shulde be - These lines refer to Edmund I King of England (ruled 939-46), son of Edward the Elder and grandson of King Alfred. See PASE. To whom lady Elflede was aunt by auncetreancestry. So betwix twaynebetween the two was founded in short spacetime An holy mynstre, of vertue full and grace. They sende for masons vpon euery syde, Counnyngeskilled in geometrie / the foundacion to take For a large mynstre, longe, hie, and wyde, SubstanciallySolidly wrought / the best that they can make, To the honour of god / for saynt Werburge sake; At the esteast end taken theyr sure foundacion Offrom the apostoles churche / ioynyngejoining both as one. Whan it was edified / and curiouslycarefully wrought And all thyng endedeverything completed / in goodly proporcion, Than riche enormentesornaments were offred and brought OfBy the said nobles with great deuocion TemporallWorldly landes / rentes / possession Were gyuen, for euer to mayntaynemaintain the place Of blessed Werburge by singular grace. As in line 545, above, and lines 622-4, below, Bradshaw again uses legalistic language here to indicate the legitimate, rightful endowments and possessions of St Werburgh's. Spirituall ministres were electchosen also: Secular chanons, of great humilite, Secular canons lived in communities like monks, subject ro regulations, but were also ordained as priests. For a full discussion of the status of canons, see Loyn, 1991, 232-3. To syngesing and psalmodise oure sauiour vntosing psalms to our saviour, Within the sayd mynstre hauynge a perpetuitehaving a permanent (perpetually endowed) office; PrebendesStipends were assigned to that fraternitefraternity, With townes / borowesboroughs / and fredomes manifestclear, Continually encreasyngincreasing vntountil the conquest. And the olde churche of Peter and of Paule By a general counsell of the spiritualteclergy, church With helpe of the duke moost principallmost important, chief That is, Earl Æthelræd. Was tranlatetranslated, moved to the myddesmiddle of the sayd cite; Where a paresshe-churche parish church was edified, trueletruly, In honour of the aforesayd apostoles twayne , Whiche shall for euer by grace diuine remayne. Also we may note, holdyng none opiniontrusting no mere opinion, hearsay (i.e. as fact), This lady Elflede ofthrough her charite Of the sayd mother-churche translatetransferred the patron, Caused the sayd oratorie oratory, place for praying reconciledre-consecrated to be In the honour of the most blessed trinite Trinity And of saynt Oswalde, martyr and kyng, For the loue she had to hym continuynge. Alan Thacker observes that 'the parish church of St. Oswald, king and martyr, originated in association with the minster church which eventually became the Benedictine Abbey of St. Werburgh. A late tradition [found in Bradshaw] that the cult of St. Oswald was introduced when the minster was re-founded by Æthelflæd of Mercia gains plausibility from the fact that she translated the same saint's remains to Gloucester in 909'. See A.T. Thacker, , Lewis and Thacker, 2005, 133-155, 149-50, also available via British History Online. The yere of our lorde .ix. hundreth and .viii. 908 C.E. This noble duchesse with mycle royaltegreat magnificence ReedifiedRebuilt Chestre / and fortified it full ryghtvery well, Churche / house / and wall, decayed piteouslepiteously. Thus brought vnto ruyne was Chestre cite First, by Ethelfride, kyng of Northumberlande, See line 504, above. And by danes / norwaies, vexyngafflicting all Englande. Lines 642-5 look back to the period of ruin and decay before Æthelflæd's intervention and restoration of Chester. See A.T. Thacker, , Lewis and Thacker, 2003, 16-33, 17, also available via British History Online. Also she enlarged this sayd old cite With newe myghty walles stronge all-about, Almost by proporcionin proportion double in quantite To the fortherearlier byldynge brought without doutdoubt; She compassed inenclosed the castell enemies to hold out Within the sayd Walles, to defende the towne Agaynst danes and walshemen, to dryue them all downestrike them all down. After the deth of her husband EthelredeÆthelræd died in 911. She ruled the realme of mercelande manfully, Due to her power and authority, together with her skills as diplomat and military tactician, medieval sources remember Æthelflæd as a woman capable of acting 'manfully'. The twelfth-century chronicler Henry of Huntingdon, for example, remarks that 'This lady is said to have been so powerful that in praise and exaltation of her wonderful gifts, some call her not only lady, or queen, but even king'. See Greenway, 1996, 309 and below, lines 666a-h. Buylded churches / and townes repared in dede, AsSuch as Staforde / Warwike Warwick / Thomwort Tamworth / and Shirisbury Shrewsbury; Of neweNewly she edified Runcorn and Edisbury. The body of saynt Oswalde also she translatetranslated From Bardeney to Gloucetur Gloucester, there to be tumulateentombed: See line 637, and note, above. Where she edified a noble monastery, With licencepermission of her brotherThe brother of Æthelflæd was Edward the Elder, son of King Alfred (ruled 899-924). See PASE. afore nominatepreviously named, In honour of saint Peter / ouer the blessed body Of the sayd saynt Oswalde / kyng and martyr coronatecrowned. In wichewhich monastery this lady was tumulateentombed, The yere of our lorde .ix. hundreth and nyntene919 C.E.; Whom myn auctor prayseth in thisthese wordes serenefair: O Elfleda potens / o terror virgo virorum: Victrix nature, nomine digna viri. Te quoque splendidior fecit natura puellam, Te probitas fecit nomen habere viri. Te mutare docet sed solum nomina sexus, Tu regina potens / rexque trophea parans. Iam nec cesarei tantum meruere triumphi, Caesare splendidior virgo virago. Vale. Bradshaw derives this verse epitaph from Henry of Huntingdon, (Greenway, 1996, 308, 309). The epitaph is discussed in (Hessler, 1923, available via JSTOR (subscription only). Diana Greenway presents the verse and its translation as follows: O Eilfleda potens, O terror uirgo uirorum, Victrix nature, nomine digna uiri. Te, quo splendidior fieres, natura puellam, Te probitas fecit nomen habere uiri. Te mutare decet, sed solam, nomina sexus, Tu regina potens rexque trophea parans. Iam nec Cesarei tantum meruere triumphi, Cesare splendidior, uirgo uirago uale. O mighty Athelflaed! O virgin, the dread of men, conqueror of nature, worthy of a man's name! Nature made you a girl, so you would be more illustrious; your prowess made you acquire the name of man. For you alone it is right to change the name of your sex: you were a mighty queen and a king who won victories. Even Caesar's triumphs did not bring such great rewards. Virgin heroine, more illustrious than Caesar, farewell.

Of the notable myracles of saynt Werburge shewed in the tyme of chanons / and fyrst howe she saued Chester from distruction of walshemen. This glorious Werburge and virgin pure By singularspecial grace of god omnipotent Shewed many myracles to euery creature, To blynde / dombedumb / haltunable to walk / lame / and impotentphysically weak, In the cite of Chestre / whan her shryne was present, Like-wyse asJust as in her lyfe at Wedon / at Hambury - WitnesethAttests the same her true legende and history. The miracles of Werburgh narrated in this chapter and those following are apparently derived from Bradshaw's source, the 'third passionary'. See below, line 1691 and note. Wher[for]eFor the purpose of the honour / prayse / and laudacionglory Of Iesu / the seconde persone in trinite the Trinity, And of this virgin a speciall commendacioncommendation, praise, We purpose to rehercerehearse, tell nowe with charitedevotion, Vnder the protection of you that shall the reders readers be, Parte of the myracles / with mynde diligentcareful mind In this humble stilestyle / and sentence consequentresulting message, meaning. Whilst this stanza refers to Bradshaw's 'humble stile' it in fact offers a good example of the difficult language and high style he often chooses to employ in . For example, he pairs the noun 'prayse' with the synonym 'laudacion', rhyming with 'commendacion' and investing the stanza with prestigious Latinate vocabulary. 'Sentence consequent' is also a deliberately Latinate and also potentially difficult phrase: whilst 'sentence', referring to a text's meaning or message, is a common term in late Middle English literature, the participle 'consequent' ('resulting, consequent') is less usual. The first myracle / that our blessed sauiour Shewed for his spouses / after her translaciontranslation 'Spouses' here refers to the Christian people in Chester (and more widely) in general, alluding to the biblical idea of the Church as the Bride of Christ (see for example 2 Corinthians 11:2). Bradshaw may have specifically selected this metaphor in order to foreground relevant metaphors of femininity and female virtue or obedience. To Chestre: was nyeclose to the tyme of Edwarde seniour, Edward the Elder (ruled 899-924). See PASE. Son to kyng AluredAlfred, famous of renowneof renowned fame. The Name of britons was chaunged that season,Bradshaw’s comment on the change of names from ‘britons’ to ‘walshemen’ is significant. He regards the Britons as prestigious, honourable ancestors, who nurtured Christianity at Chester after the withdrawal of Rome and who founded the city itself. Indeed, Bradshaw places great emphasis on the perceived British origins of the city, celebrating (and perhaps inventing) the role of ‘Kynge Leil, a Briton sure and valiant’ (see line 383). For Bradshaw, the change in nomenclature to ‘Welsh’ reflects his perception of the degeneracy of the Britons in the medieval period. His inclusion of this remark in conjunction with an observation that the Welsh became ‘segregate’ at this time perhaps also suggests his knowledge of the Anglo-Saxon etymology of the term from wælisc (‘foreign, alien’). Were named walshemen, in the montaynes segregateset apart in the mountains, Euer to the saxons hauynge inwarde hateAlways having inner hatred towards the Saxons. The Walshemen that tyme had ouer them a kyng Called Griffinus / to be theyr gouernour,Though Bradshaw dates these events to the reign of Edward the Elder, 'Griffinus' is probably to be associated with Gruffudd ap Llewelyn, King of Gwynedd (ruled 1055-1063). See further notes at line 694, below. ElecteChosen by the comons their appetite folowyngaccording to their desire, EndurateFilled with malice / couetiseenvy and rancour, Ennemies to englisshemen / as is said before. This kyng entendedintended by mortall enuymortal envy 'Mortall' here may suggest either Griffin's doomed martial ambitions regarding Chester (which are thwarted by Werburgh), or the deadly nature of envy itself as one of the seven cardinal sins. The cite of Chestre to spoyle and distryedestroy. Alan Thacker suggests that, whilst 'puzzling', this story 'may represent some confused memory of the 1050s, when Gruffudd intrigued with Earl Ælfgar of Mercia, Magnus, son of King Harald Hardrada of Norway, and the men of the Isles'. See A.T. Thacker, , Lewis and Thacker, 2003, 16-33, 24, also available via British History Online. A myghty host discended from the mountans, Well armed and strongelyfiercely approchyng the cite, Prepared for batell, with them great ordinauncearray of troops. The sayd Griffinus and all his company With his power passed ouer the water of Dee - Whiche ryuer adioynneth tois adjacent to the sayd towne, Betwene Englande and Wales a sure diuisionsecure division, boundary. Brashaw's remark that the Dee represents a 'sure diuision' between England and Wales contrasts with the comments of Gerald of Wales, who notes that '[t]he local inhabitants maintain that the Dee moves its fords every month and that, as it inclines more towards England or Wales in this change of channel, so they can prognosticate which nation will beat the other or be successful in war in any particular year'. See Thorpe, 1978, 198. This kynge layd siege vnto Chestre cite With all his great host / there honour to wynto win honour there - By policie of warreThrough the art of war / encreasynge myghtylemightily. For whicheFor which reason the citezens remaynynge within [W]ere soreseverely disconsolate, like for to twynalmost ready to burst: With wofull heuyheavy hearts they dyd call and crye Vpon blessed Werburge for helpe and remedye. The charitablebenevolent chanons with great deuocion TokeTook the holy shryne of theyr patrones patroness, Set it on the towne-walles for helpe and tuicionprotection, Trustynge on her to be saued from distres. But one of the ennemyes with great wyckednes SmotStruck the sayd shryne in castyng of a stoneby throwing a stone, And it empairedAnd damaged it / piteous to loke vponpiteous to see. AnoneImmediately great punysshement vpon them all lyghtfell: The kyng and his host were smyttenstruck with blyndnes, ThatSo that of the cite / they had no maner of syghtno kind of sight; And he that smote the holy shryne, doubtles, Was greuously vexedseverely afflicted with a spritespirit, demon of darkenes, And with hidoushideous payne expired miserably - The kynge was sore a-dredgreatly frightened / and all his company. ShortlyQuickly the kynge remoued his great host, Departed from the cite without any prayeprey, victims, spoils, And gaue in commaundement in euery costas a commandment in every border-region Saynt Werburge landes to meynteyne alwayto preserve always, AssignedMarked her possessions euer after that day With the signe of the crosse, a token euidentclear sign, In pleasyng this virgin / for drede of punysshement.

Howe saynt Werburgesaued Chestrefrom innumberable barbarike nacions / purposynge to distroye and spoyle the sayd cite. An other tyme innumerable barbarike nacions barbaric nations, peoples Came to spoyledespoil Chestre, to robbe it and distrydestroy, (Sayth the historye)So the history tells from diuersdifferent regions: Here Bradshaw refers again to his source, the 'third passionary'. See below, line 1691 and note. Harolde kyng of danes / the kynge of gotesthe Goths & galwedy people of Ireland, Maucolyn Malcolm of Scotlande, and all theyr company, With banersbanners displayed, well armed to fyght; Theyr tentes rially in hoole heth were pyghtTheir tents were pitched splendidly at Hoole Heath. Alan Thacker suggests that this episode is to be associated with 'Edward the Confessor and Harold Godwinson's conflict with Gruffudd ap Llewelyn, king of Gwynedd, in the 1050s and early 1060s'. See A.T. Thacker, , Lewis and Thacker, 2003, 16-33, 24, also available via British History Online They set theyr ordinauncebattle formation agaynst the towne Vpon euery side / timorous for to seterrifying to see, Namely at the northgate they were redy-bowneready and prepared By myght, policeThrough force and guile to haue entered the cite. The citezens, dredyng to be in captiuitecaptivity, Made intercession vnto this holy abbasse For theyr deliueraunce in suche extreme casedire situation. The deuout chanons sette the holy shryne Agaynst theyr enemies at the sayd northgate, Trustyne to Werburge to saue them from ruyneruin And shewe some myracle to them disconsolate. For the citezens were of their lyues desperatedespairing for their lives, Passynge mannes mynde to escape theyr daunger To escape their danger was beyond human thought, reason But all-only by merite of this virgin clereBut solely possible through the merit of this shining virgin. As the kynges were sautyngeattacking this forsayd cite, Trustyne for a praye to haue it euery hourBelieving every hour that they would have it as their prey, One of the sayd ennemies, replet with iniquitefull of evil, Nat worshyppyng yethe virgin / nor dredyng our sauiour, SmoteStruck this riall reliquenoble relic with a stone in his rancour, BrakeBroke therof a corner, curiouslycarefully wrought, Cast all to the grounde: than sorowe came vnsought. The sayd malefactourevil-doer nat passyngenot moving beyond the place VexedAfflicted with the deuilldevil for his greuousgrievous offence, RoryngRoaring and yellyng his outragiousextreme trespase, Tore his tonge a-sonder in wodelysavage, maddened violence, Miserable exspireddied afore them in presence; Satan ceased natdid not desist to shewe great punysshement Vpon his soule and body / by signes euident. These kynges considerynge this sodensudden vengeaunce Amonge them all lyghtdescended so soone and hastely, ShortlyQuickly remoued theyr great ordinauncebattle formation, Departed from the cite with theyr company; Callyng on this virgin fastimmediately for grace and mercy, PromyttyngePromising neuer after to retourne agayne To disquietedistress her seruauntes and cite, in certaynefor sure.

Howe an other woman vnlaufully wurkynge was made blynde / and by saynt Werburge restored was to her syght agayne. Within the same cite afore the abbay-gate Dwelled a woman / which brakewho broke the commaundement Of god and holy churche / hye sabbot-day dyd violatedefiled the exalted Sabbath-day Unlaufully wurkyngeunlawfully working: Bradshaw alludes here to commandments eight and ten amongst the 'Ten Commandments (Exodus 20), which exhort 'Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy' and 'the seventh day is a sabbath to the Lord your God; you shall not do any work, you, or your son, or your daughter, your manservant or your maidservant, or your cattle, or the sojourner who is within your gates'. wherfore great punysshement Fell vpon this woman with peynespains equiualentappropriate, fitting, Sodaynly smyttenSuddenly struck / wurkynge full buselyvery busily With greuoussevere blyndnes / and myclegreat miserye. This woman, consyderyngerealising her syght was gone, The pleasure of this worlde, her helpe and succourassistance, Hauynge to lyuelive by / small riches or none, Cried maynlyvehemently 'out out, alas''woe is me, alas! euery hour, 'Wo is me wretcheWoe is me, a wretch, fulfylledfilled with dolourmisery! Alas, I was borne to abydeexperience this wofull day My maker to displese! / alas, what shall I say?' She called to memorie with hye discrecionnoble judgement The myracles that Werburge shewed to mankynde: By grace she repented / with suche contricioncontrition, remorse That water distilledflowed from her eyes blynde, DolefullySorrowfully lamentynge / that she was so vnkyndeimpious, rebellious; For discussion of the late-antique and medieval convention that tears demonstrate sincere emotion, see Rosenwein 2006, 49-50. RuthfullyRuefully, piteously was brought to Werburge oratory, Trustyng in this virgin to haue remedy. As she continued in her supplicacion, Wofully wepynge / abidyngwaiting for the special grace Of blessed Werburge / with singular inuocacionspecial prayer, AnoneSuddenly she was cured to helth and solaceconsolation, Restored to her eye-sight / she passedleft the place, Praysed our lorde and this virgin pure, Was a holy woman after, ye may be sure.

Howe a yonge man thries hanged vnlaufully, was thries delyuered by saynt Werburge from dethe to lyfe and lyberte. Almyghty god gaue in commaundement By moises laweThrough Moses' law to his people echoneevery one, No innocent to sleekill by wrongfull iudgement Nor causeleswithout cause to punysshe by greuous oppression, Also to beware of lyght suspectiongroundless, over-eager suspicion. This probably recalls Moses' prescriptions regarding justice and the law in Exodus 20. WherofIn relation to which a myracle we shall nowe expresse, Done in Chestre cite by Werburge theyr patronesse. A certayne younge man dwelled in the cite, Honest in maners / and of good conuersacionconduct, Disposed to vertue and humilite: Was arrestarrested and taken of a lyght suspicionthrough a groundless suspicion By the officers and rule[r]s of the sayd towne, GyltlesGuiltless accused most innocently, Condemned and iudged to dethsentenced to death shamfully. After sentence gyuen / ministres were all redy Vpon the iudgement to do execucion: He was fettred and brought to the gebbet gibbet, gallows by and by And as a strongepersistent, violent thefethief hanged ther-vpon. His frendes and cosynsrelatives for hym made great monegreat lamentation - as Alas, what tonge myght expresse the wo They made that tyme departynge hym frodeparting from him (at the gallows)? And as this innocent hanghung in his payne, He called to mynd the manyfoldegreat goodnes, The myracles of Werburge, shewed her, certayne, Howe she had saued many in great distres:The hanged man's recollection of Werburgh's previous acts of mercy, as well as his prayers, provide a set of precedents which seemingly move the saint to act. So, whan he myght no wordes expresse, In mynde he requiredasked her / and humblie dyd pray From shamfull deth to saue hym that day. Robert Barrett reads this episode as evidence of the tensions between St Werburgh's and the secular civic authorities in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, observing how here '[t]he saint's intervention repudiates corrupt civic justice'. However, despite the pro-monastic propagandist intent, this story and others in the turn out to be 'ineffectual fantasies'. See Barrett, 2009, 49. Whan all the officers departed were thensfrom there Supposynge the soule seperateto be separated from the body, A white douedove descended afore them in presencein their presence And lyghtlanded vpon the gebbet gallows immediatly; The byrdebird with his byllbeak brakebroke the rope, truely, The prisoner escaped that tyme from deth, Shortly reuiuyngereviving toke naturall breth.This stanza, with its stylised scene of the white dove freeing the innocent man from the gallows, is marked by a particularly intense use of alliteration. This is most evident in lines 970-2. Whiche thynge notifiedTold of which occurrence, so meruailous in syght, The ministres returned / theyr labour in vayne: Toke this innocent by power and myght, Vpon the sayd gebbet hanged hym agayne. Thus he was delyuereddelivered by myracle from payne: The tortuous turmentours tormentors cessedceased their tyrranny, PermyttedAllowed the prisoner to go at liberteliberty. These stanzas, in the form printed by Pynson, are problematic. The chapter heading refers to the man who was 'thries hanged' ('hanged three times'), yet the narrative only refers to the man being hanged twice (lines 956-7 and lines 977-8). The adverb 'Thus' at the beginning of line 979 is also puzzling, as no explanation of how the prisoner has been freed is given. Whiche myracle knowen / his frendes and cosyns all Returned agayne with glad mynde and cheremood. The prisoner mette them, louyngpraising god in speciallin particular And blessed Werburge in his best manereto the best of his ability The deuout citezens approched them nerecame up to them, Went all to the shryne the virgin thankyng; The belles were tolled for ioyjoy of this thyng.

A brefe rehersall of certayne kynges / and how kyng Edgare came to Chestre. Also howe Leofric, Erle of Chestre, repared diuers churches. Afterthe decessedeath of kynge Edwarde seniour King Edward the Elder died in 924. Ethelstan his sonne was coronatecrowned at London King Æthelstan (ruled c.924-939). See PASE. Kynge of this lande / regnyngreigning in honour With power, regalitesovereignty by true successionhereditary succession; ValeantValiant in chiualry and actes euerychoneeach and every one, Subdued danes / scottes / norwayes / britons all, OpteynedObtained triumphe / and dignitestatus imperiall. This stanza alludes to Æthelstan's claimed status as King of All Britain. Contemporary charters refer to him as 'imperator' ('emperor') and 'King of the whole of Britain'. See PASE. The reference to 'danes / scotes / norwayes / britons' in line 1113 may specifically recall the poem in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (versions A-D) for the year 937, which gives an account of a successful battle led by Æthelstan against various Scandinavian and British armies (see Campbell, 1938). Bradshaw may have known the poem via its translation into alliterative Latin verse by Henry of Huntingdon (see Greenway, 1996, 310-11). The fourth year of his reigne / and the yere of grace viii. hundreth .ii. and seuenty872 C.E. by full computacionreckoning of time Guy erle of Warwike by fortune slayne hasehas Colbrond the gyauntgiant / floureflower of danes nacion. The sayd kyng Ethelstan by power and renowneglory ThriesThree times subdued danes / and slewe the kyng of Irelande, NominatCalled prince Anlaff / as we vnderstande. This condensed account of the exploits of Æthelstan and Guy of Warwick derives from medieval romance tradition. ‘This condensed account of the exploits of Æthelstan and Guy of Warwick derives from medieval romance tradition. M. Dominica Legge notes that ‘Guy of Warwick never existed, but his name may be derived from Wigod of Wallingford, Edward the Confessor’s cup-bearer, one of whose daughters married Robert d’Oilli; and some of his exploits may be borrowed from Brian Fitzcount, husband of his other daughter, who defended Wallingford in 1139. The fight between Guy and the Dane Colebrand is supposed to have been inspired by the Battle of Brunanburgh. It became, in England, the most popular incident in the story…’. See Legge, 1963, 162. Clearly this association between Guy, Æthelstan and Brunanburh is the reason for the allusion here. Romances of Guy of Warwick enjoyed great popularity in England in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, with further versions composed in the Early Modern period and beyond. For a full discussion of this romance tradition, see the essays collected in Wiggins and Field, 2007. As a writer influenced in many ways by Lydgate (see for example Horstmann, 1887, xxxi), Bradshaw may be specifically recalling the verse version of the romance by John Lydgate, produced between 1442 and 1468. See MacCracken, 1934, 516-38. This noble Ethelstan was good and gracious To all-holy churche / namely to religion, RyghtfullFair in iudgement / liberallgenerous and piteousmerciful To his true subiectessubjects through his dominion; To mynstresminsters, monasteries and holy places had great affection, ConfirmedEndorsed theyr foundacions with libertes clereexcellent privileges, Whose noble actes be touched on a lytell hereWhose noble acts are touched on briefly here: Regia progenies produxit nobile stemma Cum tenebris nostris illuxit splendida gemma Magnus Ethelstanus patrie decus orbita recti Illustris probitas a vero nescia flecti. These lines are inset in the Pynson text in a smaller typeface. They appear to be integral to Bradshaw's poem, as they supply the detail alluded to in the preceding line ('Whose noble actes be touched on a lytell here'). The verses derive from William of Malmesbury's , Book II, Chapter 133. In Chapter 132, William comments that he disovered an old poem on Æthelstan in an 'ancient volume' ('uolumine uetusto'), and he includes the full thirty lines in his text, of which Bradshaw gives the first four. The Oxford Medieval Texts edition gives the translation as follows: 'Noble was the scion put forth by our royal stock, when on our darkness dawned the radiance of that splendid jewel, great Æthelstan, glory of his native country, the narrow path of virtue, shining integrity that knew not how to deviate from the truth.' See Mynors, 1998-9, 210-11. After Ethelstan regned Edmunde, his brothur, King Edmund 'the Elder' (ruled 939-946). See PASE. FyueFive yeres in honour / hauying great victory. PrincisPrinces Elred and Edwyn succided eytherothursucceeded each other, Edmund's sons Eadred (ruled 946-955) and Eadwig (ruled 955-957 and continued as king of Wessex and Kent only until 959). See PASE (Eadred) and PASE (Eadwig). In great businesseffort with scottes and danes, truly. Next whomAfter whom mekemeek Edgare / sayth the history, xvi.16 yere of age / coronatecrowned at Kyngston, King Edgar (ruled Northumbria and Mercia from 959 and all of Anglo-Saxon England until 975). See PASE. Edgar's first coronation at Kingston-upon-Thames was followed by a later 'imperial' coronation at Bath in 973. Edgar was monarch during the Benedictine Reform movement of the late tenth century, during which many monastic houses were re-founded or newly endowed. For recent discussions of the reign of Edgar, see Scragg, 2008. With peace and quietnes first ruled this region. In whose natiuite At whose birth the blessed Dunstan HerdeHeard angles singe with myclegreat melody. Archbishop Dunstan, a key figure in the Benedictine Reform. See PASE, or detailed discussion in Ramsay, 1992. 'Peace is nowe come to Englande, certantruly, Quitenes / and rest / honour / and victory.' Of cornescorn and frutesfruit that tymeat that tyme was plentie; Danes / norwaies / scottes / britons in euery place Submytted them-selfe to the kynges grace. ScienceLearning encreased, true loue and amitelove and friendship, Vertue was exalted in all this region; Monasteries were edifiedbuilt of his benignitethrough his generosity, Endowed with riches / and riallmagnificent possession: xl.40 religious places by famous opinion Were newly buylded by the sayd noble kyng, In sondry places of this realme standyngLying in various places within this realm. Secular prestes expulsedexpelled sothelytruly were From diuersmany monasteries with great discrecionmoral judgement, Clerics not following the Benedictine monastic rule were removed from the reformed religious houses. Religious persones, repleitfilled with vertue clereexcellent, Entred their places causebecause of deuocion; Charite was feruentzealous and holy religion; The lyues of saynts were sothtruly in eche place, And written in legendes for our comfort and grace.Bradshaw alludes here to the revival of religious learning during the Benedictine Reform, and the renewed emphasis on access to hagiography (accounts of saint's lives). Many shyps were made vpon the kynges costat the King's expense A pun may be intended here on cost ('expense') and cost ('coast'). To serchesearch by the sesea all his lande about, That no alian entre in no-maner costSo that no foreigner should enter under any circumstances, By policiegood government and manhodmanly virtue to holde all his ennemies out. Danes / norwaies / scottes durst nat ones loke outdid not once dare look out (attempt an attack) - Such drede all nacions had ensuynge the tymefollowing the time That kyng Edgare regned by prouidence diuine. In progressestate journey he passed onesonce in the yere Eche quarter of the realme with his company, To sesee that his subiectes well ordred were And the lawe obserued / iustice with mercy. Than was noneThen there was no oppression, wronges, nor iniury, DebateStrife, malice, rancour myght nat be founde; True loue and charite was in all the londe. Kynge Edgare approched the cite of legions, Nowe called Chestre / specified afore;See lines 372-8, above. Where .viii.8 kynges mette of diuers nacionsfrom different nations, Redy to gyue Edgare reuerence and honour, LegianceAllegiance and fidelite depely sworne full sorevery seriously At the same cite: after to be obedient, PromytPromised at his callyng to come to his parliament. The account of Edgar's visit to Chester derives ultimately from a brief reference in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (versions DEF) for 973, later much expanded by twelfth-century chroniclers. The version here is consonant with that in Higden, , Book VI, Ch. X (Babington and Lumby, 1865-86, vol. 7, 16-18). Questions over the exact nature of the ceremony performed in Chester - the number and identity of kings present, whether they did in fact row Edgar along the Dee, and whether this was a ritual of submission or a formalisation of diplomatic relationships and obligations - persist in current critical debate. See for example Thornton, 2001, available via Wiley Interscience (subscription only), Barrow, 2001, available via Wiley Interscience (subscription only), and Williams, 2004. From the Castell he went to the water of Dee By a priue posturne secret gate through the walles of the towne; The kyng toke his barge with mycle rialtegreat ceremony, Rowyng vpwarde to the church of saynt Iohn: The forsayd .viii.8 kynges with hym went alone: Kynge Edgare kept the stornestern / as most principallimportant, senior, Eche prince had an oreoar to labour with-all. Whan the kynge had done his pylgrimage And to the holy roode holy cross made oblacionprayer, They entred agayne into the sayd barge, Passynge to his place with great renowne. Than Edgare spake in praysynge of the crowne: 'All my successours may glad and ioyfull be To haue suche homage, honour and dignite.' Also it is to be had in memory That this sayd Edgare and his princis all Came with great reuerence vnto the monastery, To worshyp saynt Werburge with mynde liberallnoble; Where he gaue fredoms and priuileges speciall, With singularspecial possessions ofout of his charite, Confirmynge the olde grauntesgrants by hye auctoritehigh authority. This Edgare was nominatenamed in cronicles expresseexplicitly 'The floure of Englande', regnyngreigning as emperour, Lyke-wiseJust as Romulus to romains was of prowesprowess, might, Cyrus to the persis / to the grekes their conquerour, Great Charles to frenchemen / to troians Hectour; Famous in victorye, preignantdiscerning in wysdome, Vertuous and pacientpatient / feruentzealous in deuocion. In this stanza, Bradshaw compares Edgar, as flower and champion of the English, to great leaders of other nations from history and myth. These include Romulus, founder of Rome; Cyrus the Great, founder of Persia; the 'conquerour' of the Greeks, probably Alexander the Great; 'Great Charles' or Charlemagne, founder of the Carolingian empire; and Hector, the prince of Troy and leader in the Trojan War. This selection of figures recalls the tradition of the 'nine worthies' in later medieval art and literature. See 'King Arthur - Romancing Politics: Texts and Contexts', Norton Topics Online. Auctor opum, vindix scelerum / largitor honorum, Sceptriger Edgarus regna superna petit. Hic alter Solomon / legum pater / orbita pacis, Quod claruit bellis / claruit inde magis. Templa deo / templis monachos / monachis dedit agros: Nequitie lapsum / iusticieque loquum.These lines derive from a slightly longer panegyric to Edgar in Henry of Huntingdon’s . The text given by Diana Greenway is largely identical, except for a few differences in orthography and punctuation, although the first word varies between manuscript versions and she prefers ‘Tutor’ (‘Protector’). Bradshaw’s version would give the alternative opening epithet ‘Giver of treasure’). Greenway’s translation of these lines runs thus: 'Protector of treasure, avenger of crimes, distributor of honours, Edgar the sceptre-bearer seeks the celestial kingdoms. A second Solomon, the father of laws, the way of peace: he was all the more glorious for having no wars. He gave churches to God, monks to churches, lands to monks, a fall to wickedness, and a place to justice'. See Greenway 1996, 322, 323. Also from the byrthebirth of our blessed sauiour A thousande fyfty yere / and seuen1057 years expresseclearly, In the tyme of saynt Edwarde kyng and confessourconfessor, Edward the Confessor (ruled 1042-1066). See PASE. As William Maluesbury beareth wytnestestifies, Bradshaw refers to one of his sources, the twelfth-century chronicler William of Malmesbury. William of Malmesbury gives an account Leofric, for example, in the , Book II, Ch. 196 (Mynors, 1998-9), 348-51. Than Leofricus, a man of great mekeneshumility, Leofric, Earl of the Mercians (died 1057). See PASE. Was erle of Chestre and duke of merciens the Mercians, Son to duke Leoffwin by liniall discenceline of descent. This noble Leofric, sayth policronicon, Higden, , Book V, Ch. XXVI (Babington and Lumby, 1865-86, vol. 7, 198-201). OfOut of his deuocion and beningnegenerous grace, Namely by the counsell and vertues mocionvirtuous proposal Of his lady Godith, countes whiche was, Godgifu or 'Godiva', wife of Earl Leofric. See PASE. ReedifiedRe-built churches decayed in many a place, Also he founded the monastery of Leonence Leominster, By the towne of Herforde and the place of Wenlecence Much Wenlock. This erle repareledrestored a noble olde monastery, Euesham vpon Auen Evesham upon Avon / gaue them great riches; Also founder was of the abbay in couentre Coventry, Made the cite free, for loue of his countesse: Bradshaw alludes here to the popular mythology surrounding Godgifu or 'Lady Godiva', and the story of her riding naked through the streets of Coventry in order to free the citizens from a punitive tax. See Higden, , Book VI, Ch. XXV (Babington and Lumby, 1865-86, vol. 7, 198-200); Donoghue 2003 . At the cite of Chestre ofthrough his great goodnes He repared the College-churche of saynt Iohn, Endowed it with riches and enormentesornaments many onmany a one. This erle of Chestre, the sayd Leofricus, OfOut of his charite / and feruent deuocion To the honour of god / reedifiedre-built full graciousvery beautifully The mynstre of Werburge within the sayd towne, Gaue vnto it riches and singularspecial possession, Endowed the sayd place with fredoms and liberte And speciall priuileges, confirmed by auctoriteauthority. So the sayd place encreased in honour, In great possessions / fredoms / and richesse; With singular deuocion vnto our sauiour And prayse to saynt Werburge, theyr patronesse, The chanons obserued vertue and clenneschastity, Daily augmentynggrowing by diuine sufferaunceindulgence VntoUntil the comyng to this lande of normans.

Of the comyng of Willyam conquerour to this lande, and howe Hug. Lupe, his syster sonne, was founder of Chestre monasterye. The yere of grace .M. sixe and thre-scour1066, The .xiii.13th day of the monethmonth of october The duke of normandy / William conquerour, William I or William the Conqueror (Duke of Normandy from 1035 and ruled Normandy and England 1066-87). See DNB (subscription only). PightFought a stronge batell / displayed his baner, Of normans and frenchemen hauynge great power, Subdued kyng Harolde / opteynedwon all the londe, Was coronatecrowned at London / made saxons all bondebound, subjugated. For diuerse great causes he came to this countre: First for dethbecause of the death of Alured, his nere kynsmanclose kinsman; Alfred, son of Æthelræd II. See entry on William the Conqueror in DNB (subscription only). The proscripcionlaw, decreeApparent error for prescription. of Robert archebisshop of Canterbury; Robert of Jumièges, the Norman Archbishop of Canterbury who, according to Norman historians, gave William Edward the Confessor's promise that he should inherit the English throne. See entry on William the Conqueror in DNB (subscription only). The periuryperjury of Harolde agaynst conscience playneclear; William and various Norman sources presented Harold Godwineson (ruled 1066) as a perjurer for reneging on his previous acceptance of William as heir to the English throne. See DNB (subscription only). In this line, the adjective 'playne' may refer either to Harold's 'explicit, overt' perjury, or to the offence against 'clear, honest' conscience. The promyspromise of saynt Edwarde made to him, certayne, The succession of three alliterating nouns ('proscripcion', 'periury', 'promys') in these lines suggests a mnemonic formula used to help recall this key event in medieval English history. That the sayd William shulde enioye the crowne, If the kyng departed without succession. A generall counsell was celebrateheld, celebrated at London, That all bysshops seesbishops' sees, diocesan seats by helpe of the conquerour From borowesboroughs, small settlements shulde be translatetransferred to a famous towne Within their diocese / to the greatter honour. Ryght so they all were / sayth myn auctor; Probably Higden, , Book VII, Ch. III. See Babington and Lumby, 1865-86, vol. 7, 292). AlsoSo the see of Lichfelde Lichfield was translate to Chester, By helpe and sufferaunceindulgence of the bysshop Peter. Alan Thacker comments on the transfer, which took place in 1075, that 'The new Norman bishop, Peter, may... have seen a chance for diocesan expansion in tandem with the earl's [Hugh I] plans for the conquest of north Wales'. See A.T. Thacker, , Lewis and Thacker, 2003, 16-33, 30, also available via British History Online. With Wylliam conquerour came to this region A noble worthy prynce nominatecalled Hug. Lupus, The dukes son of Britayne son of the duke of Brittany / and his syster sonsister's son; Hugh d'Avranches, first earl of Chester (died 1101). See DNB (subscription only). FlouryngeFlowering in chiualry, bolde and victorious, ManfullManly in batell / liberallnoble and vertuous: To whom the kyng gaue for his enheritaunceinheritance The counte of Chesshire, with the appurtinauncepossessions and privileges pertaining to it, Alan Thacker notes that Early Hugh probably received the city in 1071. See A.T. Thacker, , Lewis and Thacker, 2003, 16-33, 25, also available via British History Online. By victorie to wynne the forsayd Erledom, FrelyFreely to gouernegovern it as by conquest rightthrough lawful conquest; Made a sure chartre to hym and his succession, By the swerdesword of dignite to holde it with myght, And to calle a parlementparliament, assembly to his wyll and syght, To ordregovern his subiectessubjects after true iusticeaccording to true justice As a prepotent prince pre-eminent prince / and after statutes to deuise. This valeant knyght with a myghty host Descended from London to wynne the sayd counte. But the lordes of Chesshire rose from euery costside, borderland, Agaynst hym made batell and had the victorie;This may refer to the rising of 1069-70. 'Chester's close ties with the earls of Mercia led to its involvement in the rising of 1069-70'. Under Hugh, Chester also 'quickly became the base for expeditions against both the Welsh and, in the twelfth century, the Irish'. See A.T. Thacker, , Lewis and Thacker, 2003, 16-33, 25, also available via British History Online. ThriesThree times they preuayledprevailed agaynst the erle, trulie. AfterAfterwards he optaynedwon to his fame and honour The erledome of Chestre, entred as a conquerour. He gaue to his knyghtes after theyr desireaccording to their desire Lordshyps and franchesprivileges / and great possession, With riche mariages, within all Chesshire, Exalted his seruauntes to hye promocionhigh advancement, status; Vnto holy churche had special deuocion, Maynte[in]yngeMaintaining iustice / commendyng vertue, DeposyngPutting down vice by the helpe of Iesu. After the departuredeath of his vncle, the conquerour, Whan William Ruff. toke the regalitekingship, William Rufus (ruled 1087-1100). See DNB (subscription only). ThanThen blessed Anselme, the famous doctourteacher, Anselm, Abbot of Bec and Archbishop of Canterbury. See DNB (subscription only). Dyd visetvisit this lande oft-tymesoften of his charitethrough his devotion, Glad to refourme / and brynge vnto vniteunity Where was debate / and mycle diuisionWhere there was dispute and great division, By diligent labour / and good exhortacionencouragement. This forsayd erle of his benignitethrough his good will, InteriouslyInwardly louyngeloving holy religion, RepleitFilled with vertue and feruent charite, SendeSent for saynt Anselme vnto London, To come to Chestre at his peticionrequest And there for to founde a religious place In honour of Werburge by diuine grace. Blessed Anselme at the erles supplicacion Came vnto Chestre with gladde cheremood shortlysoon: Where he founded an abbaye of holy religion, A pleasaunt place and a noble monasterye, In worshyp of god / and saynt Werburge, sothelytruly, The yere of grace by full computacionreckoning of time A thousande .iiii. score .xiii. yere alon1093 years altogether. See A.T. Thacker, , Lewis and Thacker, 2003, 16-33, 31, also available via British History Online. All secular prestes priests / and chanons also, Within the sayd place afore-tymepreviously dwellyng Were clerely dismyssed / and lettenlet go; Religious monkes, perfect in lyuyngeperfect in their manner of living, Receyued were gladly their rule professynge. Saynt Anselme ordeyned Richard of Beccense To be their abbot with great preeminence. Richard, a monk from Anselm's monastery in Normandy, became the first abbot. See Higden, , Book VII, Ch. VII (Babington and Lumby, 1865-86, vol. 7, 360). Landes / rentes / libertes / and great possession, FranchesRights / fredoms / and priuileges riallsplendid privileges Were gyuen mekelyhumbly to that foundacion, Maners / borowesboroughs / townes / with the people thrallbound in service, And many faire churches / chapels withall, WardesRights to control over property and mariages were gyuen that season To god and saynt Werburge, cause of deuocion; This stanza includes many legal terms which underpin the rights and possessions granted to St Werburgh's - many of which would still have been crucial to the abbey's status and wealth in Bradshaw's own time. Kyng Wyllyam Ruff, son to the conquerour, See line 1291, above. Confirmed the foundacion / with great auctoriteauthority, Endowed the monastery with myclegreat honour Of fredoms / franchesrights / also liberte. The place that tyme was made as frenoble, privileged As the sayd erle was in his castell, Or as hert myght thynke / or tonge myght tell. Saynt Anselme departed thence vnto London And was made archebisshop of Canturbury. To the place he gaue a sure confirmacionratification, With singularspecial priuileges to be had in memory; Of whom it is written here folowyng, truly: Hic vir dum vixit, extirpantes maledixit Werburge iura presentia siue futura. 'While this man [Anselm] lived, he cursed those who would eradicate the rights of Werburgh, whether present or future.' This noble prince gaue of his charitethrough his devotion RiallSplendid riche enormentesornaments vnto the sayd place, CoopesCopes (liturgical vestments) / crosses / Iewelsjewels of great rialtemagnificence, ChalesChalices / censurescensers / vesturesvestments and landes dyd purchace; A librarie of bokes to rede and synge there was - Of whiche riall iewels and bokes some remayne Within the sayd monastery to thys day, certayne. The founder also buylded within the monasterie Many myghty places / conuenient for religion, CompasedEnclosed with stronge walles on the west partieside And on the other syde with Walles of the towne, Closed at euery ende with a surestrong postron gate, In south part the cimiteriecemetery inuironedencircled rounde about. For a sure defence ennemies to holde out. The .ix. yere aftre this riallnoble foundacion, This noble founder the .xxvii.27th day of Iuly Departed to-warde the heuenly mancionheavenly mansion. This line recalls the biblical phrase 'In my father's house [i.e. heaven] are many mansions' (John 14:2). Next whom his son Richarde succeded, truly, Richard d'Avranches, second Earl of Chester, drowned in the White Ship disaster, 1120. See the end of the entry on Hugh d'Avranches in DNB (subscription only). ThanThen regnyng in honour was the first kyng Henry. King Henry I (ruled 1100-1135). See DNB (subscription only). AlsoSo the place had their fraunchesprivileges and fredom AforeBefore the sayd cite a hundreth yere and onea hundred and one years. Here Bradshaw makes the point that the monastery of St Werburgh's enjoyed freedom and independence long before the same privileges were granted to the city of Chester. The date of the charter to the city of Chester which Bradshaw is probably recalling is 1300, when Edward I recognised its mayoralty and granted the city certain concessions. See See A.T. Thacker, , Lewis and Thacker, 2003, 34-89, 37 and 43-4, also available via British History Online. Bradshaw's comment hints at possible tensions and rivalries between secular and religious institutions and authorities in medieval Chester.

Howe a great fire, like to distroye all Chestre, by myracle ceased / whan the holy shryne was borne about the towne by the monkes. From the incarnacionincarnation of our sauiour A thousand / a hundreth yere, .lxxx.1180 years alsoaltogether, OnOne sonday in mydlentonmid-Lent / the .viii.8th houre, Whan euery paresshen parishoner theyr churche went to As all christen people of dutie shulde do, A fyrefire by infortunemisfortune rose vp sodeinly, All flamyng feruenthot orbefore the people dyd espysaw. Alan Thacker remarks on the story of the Chester fire attributed to the 'third passionary', commenting that '[T]hat story was undoubtedly current almost immediately after the events it purported to describe, since it was also recorded by Lucian in his , written and the abbey in the 1190s. See A.T. Thacker, , Lewis and Thacker, 2003, 16-33, 31, also available via British History Online. This fearefull fire encreased more and more, Piteously wastyng hous / chambre / and hall; The citezens were redy their cite to succourhelp, Shewed all their diligence / and labour continuallcontinuous, Some cried for water / and some for hookes dyd call,These hooks may have been those fixed to the top of ladders for climbing buildings or hooks used for pulling down structures in the path of the fire. Some vsed other enginsdevices by crafteskill and policydesign, Some pulled downe howses afore the fire, truly. Other, that were impotentpowerless / mekely gan prayebegan to pray Our blessed lorde / on them to haue pitepity; Women and children cried 'out and waile-a-way''alas, woe!', Beholdyng the daunger and perill of the cite; Prestes made hasthurried diuine seruice to supplesay, Redy for to succour their neyghbours in distres (As charite required) and helpe their heuynesdistress. The fire contynued without any cessyngeceasing, FeruentlyHotly flamyng euer contynuallalways continuing, From place to place meruaylously rennyngmarvellously running, As it were tynderAs if it were tinder consumyng toure and wall. The citezens sadly laboured in vayne allall in vain; By the policiedesign of man was founde no remedy To cessestop the fire so feruent and myghty. Alas, great heuynesheaviness, misery it was to beholde The cite of Troye all flamyng as fire;In these lines Bradshaw compares the destruction of Chester during the great fire to the burning of Troy or Rome. These epic comparisons with the great cities of classical myth and history elevate the status of Chester and present the fire as a momentous, legendary event. More pitepity of Rome cite was manyfolde, Feruently flagrant / empeiryngdamaging the empire:The slightly contrived use of the verb empeiren here enables word-play on 'empeiryng' and 'empire'. As to the quantiteIn terms of the scale (of the fire), the cite of Chestire Myght be assembled this styme in like case Might at this time resemble a similar situation To the sayd citees, remedeleswithout remedy, alas! Many riall places fell adowne that day, Riche marchauntes houses brought to distruction, Churches and chapels went to great decay: That tyme was brentbruned the moregreater part of the towne; And to this present day is a famouswidespread opinion Howe a myghty churche, a mynstre of saynt Michaell, That seasonAt that time was brent and to ruyne fell. Alan Thacker notes that 'in the mid 12th century a "monastery" of St. Michael in Chester was supposedly among the gifts of William fitz Niel to Norton priory. It was presumably the "mighty minster" of St. Michael later said [by Bradshaw] to have been burned down in the great fire of 1180'. See A.T. Thacker, , Lewis and Thacker, 2005, 133-155, 146, also available via British History Online. This monastery of St Michael was not the same as the medieval parish church of St Michael, which apparently stood on the same site as the present-day St Michael's church building. Whan the people sawe their power insufficient, By diligent labour / wysdomegood judgement and policyedesign, To subdue the fire / but styll dyd augmentbut rather it still increased: To almyghty god they dyd call and crye And to saynt Werburge, the gracious lady, For helpe and succour in such wretchednes, Wepyng and waylyng for woowoe and heuynesmisery. Thabbot The abbot and couent monks of the sayd monasterie Religiously lyuyng in holy conuersacionmanner of living, RepleitFilled with mekeneshumility and feruent charite, Toke the holy shryne in prayer and deuocion, Syngyng the letanie bare itSinging the litany carried it in procession, Compasyng the fyre in euery strete and place, Trustyng in Werburge for helpe, aide and grace. Whan they had ended the holy letanyelitany From place to place procedyng in stacionin procession, ceremony, AnoneAt once a stremyng sterreshooting star appered sodaynlyesuddenly, A white douedove descended afore the congregacion Approchyng as to helpe them / a signe of consolacion. The people reioysedrejoiced of that gostlyspiritual syght And praysed saynt Werburge with power and myght. So by >the merite of this blessed virgin The fire began to cessecease - / a myracle clereexcellent - Nat passyngNot passing the place / where the holy shryne Was borne by the bretherne / as playnly dyd appere. The citezens dyd helpe in their best manereto the best of their ability; The feruent great fire extinctedextinguished was in-dede By grace aboueabove nature / in story we may rede. Bradshaw's reference to 'grace aboue nature' recalls the medieval theory of miracles, as outlined by authors such as Anselm, which defines a miracle as an event above and beyond the laws of nature or human skill and action. See Ward, 1982, 3-19. The clergie, the burges citizens / and the comons all, Consyderynge the goodnes of this virgin bright, With tendernes of hert and loue in speciall Magnified and praysed our lorde god almyght And blessed Werburge by day, also nyght, WhicheWho hath preserued of her great charitethrough her great kindness Chestre from distruction in extreme necessiteneed. Vnto her shryne the people all went, The clergie before, in maner of procession, Thankyng this virgin with loue feruent For her mercy and grace shewed them vponshowed to them; Deuoutly knelynge there made oblacionprayer, Sayeng full sadlyvery solemnly / 'we shall neuer able be The place to recompence for this ded of charite'To repay the place for this act of mercy. Robert Barrett notes that Bradshaw 'includes the idea of impossible recompense as a preemptive strike against a citizenry all too ready to enter into conflict with the abbey - and all too capable of winning that struggle'. See Barrett, 2009, 45.

A breue rehersall of the myracles of saynt Werburge after her translacion to Chestre These fore-sayd myracles and signes celestiall, In this chapter (as well as chapters 22 and 23), the stanzas increase in length to 8 lines, indicating the higher subject matter and more elevated style here in these final panegyric sections. By diuine sufferaunceindulgence shewed manifestlyclearly, Magnifien Honour this virgin and blessed moiniall nun With myclegreat worshyp, honour and victory, Playnly declaryng vnto your memory What singularspecial grace / worshyp / and excellence Our sauiour shewed for his spouse openly, Werburgh is Christ's 'spouse', having entered into a symbolic marriage with him through her religious vows. However, as the whole church may be understood as the 'spouse' or 'bride of Christ (see for example Revelations 21:2), Bradshaw's choice of metaphor implies Christ's demonstration of grace to Christians more widely. As is rehersed at masse in her sequensAs is told at mass during the liturgy in her honour. In this chapter each stanza ends with the word 'sequens', foregrounding the formal commemoration of Werburgh in the liturgy and the church (specifically the monastery of St Werburgh) in Chester as the custodian of her memory. To expressetell all myracles written in the place In a boke nominatebook called the third passionarye, Bradshaw's apparent source, the 'third passionary' (no longer extant) seems to have been a compilation bringing together various different hagiographic and miracle texts relating to Werburgh. Alan Thacker notes that '[l]egends about the saint, together with a Life, probably that attributed to Goscelin of Saint-Bertin, were said in the 16th century [by Bradshaw] to be preserved in a book called the "third passionary". The corpus of miracle stories was probably put together in the late 12th century: it comprised wonders associated with both the canons of the old minster and the monks of the new abbey, extending, it was claimed, from the reign of Edward the Elder (899-924) to 1180'. Thacker remarks further that '[t]he evidence suggests that in the 12th century the monks of St. Werburgh's were actively presenting their patroness as the special protector of the earls and their city', and the 'third passionary would fit within this programme of commemoration and promotion. See A.T. Thacker, , Lewis and Thacker, 2003, 16-33, 31, also available via British History Online. In her edition of Goscelin of Saint-Bertin's Life of St Werburgh, Rosalind Love makes a good case for identifying the 'third passionary'. 'London, Gray's Inn Library 3 is the first and only surviving volume of a four volume legendary, written in the early twelfth century at St Werburgh's Chester... Inserted paper flyleaves (fols. ii, iii) contain a list, in an early sixteenth-century hand, of the contents of the present volume, and of three others which are now lost, in alphabetical order of saints with a reference for each Life to the number of the volume and the leaf within it... The list of contents includes, for leaf 172 of the now-lost third volume of the legendary, the item "Werburg et sic consequenter de Sexburga, Ermenilda etc'"... Presumably, then, this was a copy of the [Life of St Werburgh] ... though quite what might have been encompassed by "etc." is another question, frustratingly unanswerable. Corroboration of this information comes from the English version of the Life of St Wærburh by the Chester monk Henry Bradshaw, who refers more than once to the presence of a Latin Life of Wærburh in "the third Passionarie" of Chester'. See Love, 2004, lviii. It wolde require a longe tyme and space, To the reders tedious (no meruayle sothlyno wonder, indeed). Wher[for]eFor that reason we omytte to writte of them specially, But touched in generall vnto your audience, To reioysegladden and comfort your hertes inwardly, As ye may considrecontemplate in her sequens. Certaynly, it is knowenknown by bokes expressclearly: SithSince that saynt Werburge came to Chestre cite, By the power of god and myracle, doutleswithout doubt, She hath defended the towne from ennemite, From barbarike nacionsbarbaric nations full of crudelitecruelty, Of who we haue shewed with diligence, Preseruyng her seruauntes / and the monastery, As is declared in her true sequence. Also of her goodnes preserued she hase The sayd towne from fire in extreme necessite; Many diuersdifferent tymes to their ioyejoy and solace ReleuyngComforting the citezens in wo and penalitehardship. For it is well knowen, by olde antiquitesince long ago / through old books SithSince the holy shryne came to their presence, It hath ben their comfort and gladnes, truly, As playnly appereth in her sequens. Also to blynde men she hath gyuengiven syght, To dombe men speche right perfectlyabsolutely perfectly, To deffe men their heryng pleasaunt and rightproper, And helth to sicke men repleitfilled with debiliteweakness, Delyuered prisoners from captiuite, PassageAbility to walk to lame men / to mad men intelligence; Suche myracles shewed this blessed lady, As ye may vnderstande in her sequens. Women with childepregnant, in labour by her had good delyuerauncedelivery, Virgins defended from shame and vilanywickedness; Her seruauntes were cured from wofull greuauncemiserable sickness, hardship, MarchantesMerchants and mariners delyueredsaved from ieopardyedanger; Other were saued from hangyng shamfully; A speciall comfort, succourhelp and defence To all carefullsorrowful creatures sekyng for remedy, By singularspecial grace / as sayth the sequens. NoThere was no wofull person in payne and wretchednes, Man, woman, childe / who-so-euer they bewhoever they might be, Comynge to the abbay with perfit mekenesperfect humility, Makyng supplicacion to this lady freenoble, ButExcept that they departed ioyfull and meriehappy To theyr dwellyng-place by her beniuolencebenevolence, And for their lyuyngliving had all thyng necessarie, As written is playnly in her sequens. For whiche great myracles and signes continuallconstant This blessed Werburge, floure of humilite flower of humility, Of the people is called for grace supernallby heavenly grace 'Patrones of Chestre' / protrectrice protector of the countre. Where nextnext to our sauiour and his mother Marie She hath great honour, prayse and preeminence, As most condigneworthy to beare the principalitehigh station, In witnes wherofIn witness of which recordeth her sequens. This holy abbasse and lady imperiall Hath ben presidenthead, ruler in Chestre monasterie, Theyr trust / theyr treasure / and defence speciall In myclegreat reuerence .vii. hundreth yere700 years, trulie; And so shall continue, by grace of god almyghty, To the worldes ende, in hieexalted magnificence. To whom be honour, worship and glorie Euer to endure / as sayth her sequens.